(The source text of this series is “In Search of Lost Modernity” by Akio KAWATO.

The English edition of this book (originally written in Japanese) is on

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1hiRK7kjbX0Hxd2NOxPqtQlVWgjDHgKCr/edit

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1MB0Me9P5Lpa2HGceuJUdMqqQ2CRHQSxa/edit

The copyright belongs to the author, Akio Kawato

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This installment highlights what the author considers to be the most important aspects of Mesopotamia. While ancient Greek civilization drew many of its elements from the “Orient,” Mesopotamia constituted a significant portion of that “Orient.” In contrast to the ancient Egypt, where the history seems to revolve mostly around accounts of shifts in pharaonic power, the history of Mesopotamia involves the evolution of the economy and society as a whole.

Furthermore, the origin of the Sumerians—who are considered to be the founders of this civilization—remains unknown to this day. In the author’s view, there is a certain romance to Mesopotamia.

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The French historian Fernand Braudel observed, “In ancient Babylon, there were bankers, merchants involved in long-distance trade, and all the tools of credit transactions, such as bills of exchange, promissory notes, and checks.”

The author sees the origins of the “modern era” in Mesopotamia.

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Mesopotamia – A Prototype of Modern Times

Much has been written about Mesopotamia, so here I’ll focus on the aspects I find intriguing or unclear. Like the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia was repeatedly invaded by different peoples who established their own kingdoms in this fertile region, sometimes even coexisting in multiple kingdoms. It was a rich land that became home to many cultures and civilizations.

The history of Mesopotamia began around 3000 BC, when the Sumerians built city-states in the southern region. However, ruins in Hamqal, near the upper Tigris in northeastern Syria, are thought to date back to around 4000 BC. Over time, Mesopotamia was invaded and ruled by various outside forces, including the Semitic Amur, Hittites, Assyrians, Achaemenid Persians, Alexander the Great (in 331 BC), the Roman Empire, the Mongols, and the Ottoman Turks.

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The Mysterious Sumerians

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The Sumerians, the founders of early Mesopotamian civilization, remain a mystery: no one knows precisely where they came from or where they eventually disappeared to. Were they of Asian or Indo-European origin? Curiously, their language contained particles similar to the Japanese postpositional particles te, ni, o, and wa, and it was distinct from the languages of surrounding cultures.

In modern-day Turkmenistan, ruins bearing similarities to Sumerian structures have been discovered. Did the Sumerians migrate south to Mesopotamia from this area, or did they later travel to Turkmenistan from Mesopotamia? If the former, the Margiana civilization in Turkmenistan could predate Mesopotamia itself.

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The Sumerians developed legal and social systems, including notaries and monetary compensation, which are still in use today. Interestingly, the Japanese word hanko (seal), still used in official capacities, is thought to have Sumerian roots. Around 3200 BC, the Sumerians also introduced cuneiform writing—1,800 years before the appearance of the Chinese oracle bone script, the ancestor of Chinese characters.

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A fascinating theory suggests that the Sumerians were hybrid between an alien from the planet Nibiru, called the Anunnaki, and the early humans. According to this legend, the Sumerian hero Gilgamesh claimed, “I am half god and half man, and two-thirds of my blood is divine.”

If they truly possessed an advanced civilization, it’s intriguing to consider why they didn’t prevent the chaos that followed in human history. Incidentally, there is a Japanese legend of the “heavenly grandson” descending to Earth. Some internet theories even link the term Sumeramikoto, referring to the emperor, to the word “Sumer,” though the truth of this connection remains uncertain.

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Assyria: The Prototype of a Centralized State

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In the 13th century BC, Assyria established a centralized state that unified much of Mesopotamia. It boasted a formidable military force, equipped with iron weapons, horses, and chariots. Regions conquered by Assyria were governed directly as provinces, while those that pledged submission were ruled indirectly as vassal states. The number of provinces eventually exceeded 100, and a bureaucratic structure led by governors managed these areas. This state structure closely resembled those of later empires, such as the Persian and Roman empires. In other words, Mesopotamia (perhaps, like Egypt) can be seen as the birthplace of the ancient centralized state model.

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On a related note, Mesopotamia saw the rise of prominent trading companies, such as the Egibi and Murashu Trading Companies, around 600 BC. These companies are believed to have engaged in investment-banking-style finance, funding voyages and sharing in the profits. The Hammurabi Code also regulated interest rates for loans given to farmers, whether in money or seeds.

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Although Venice and Genoa were known for pioneering finance in the Mediterranean during the Middle Ages, financial practices in the Mediterranean may have originated in Mesopotamian times. Similar businesses likely existed in ancient Alexandria, an Egyptian port, and in Athens, where trade was financed through pooled investments from smaller investors.

The French historian Fernand Braudel observed, “In ancient Babylon, there were bankers, merchants involved in long-distance trade, and all the tools of credit transactions, such as bills of exchange, promissory notes, and checks.”